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<p align="justify">The first Saami b … <p align="justify">The first Saami books were published in 1619 in the [[Ume Saami language|Ume Saami ]] region in Sweden. These were texts for ecclesiastical use written in poor Saami. For many centuries translations of ecclesiastical [[Literature|literature]] constituted the main genre of the books published. Through Pehr Fjellström (1697-1764), the Rector of Lycksele, an initial effort was made to describe Saami in a systematic manner. In 1738, he published the <em>Grammatica Lapponica</em> and the dictionary <em>Dictionarium Sueco-Lapponicum</em>. At this time, there was discussion about a suitable orthography for future publishing. This discussion has continued up to the present day. The results can be seen mainly in a translation of the New Testament in 1755 and in other books which were published from the mid-1700 s on. The texts which were published in what was called, the Southern Lappish book language (written language) were in a language that was Ume Saami in character with some northern elements. Among works of lasting value are the <em>Lexicon Lapponicum</em> (1780) of Erik Lindahl and Samuel Öhrling. The book contains translation into Swedish and Latin and the vocabulary is taken from the Lule, Pite and Ume Lappmark regions. A monument among the books that were published in Saami was the Saami Bible of 1811. This, too, was written in a form of Saami which was spoken in the central Lappmark regions of Sweden. Through the original texts which Lars Levi [[Laestadius, L.L. (engl. ver.)|Læstadius]] wrote in the middle of the nineteenth century, the emphasis shifted the languages spoken further north, that is to say, in the Lule and Torne/Tornio regions. </p> <p>The beginning of Saami language research came in the years before the turn of the century.Oddly enough, the change was not initiated by a Swede but by a Hungarian called Ignác Halász. His findings were published in a collection of seven books entitled: <em>Svéd-lapp njelv 1 - 7</em> (1885-1896). More thorough and in-depth research on the Saami languages in Sweden began with Karl Bernhard Wiklund (1868-1934). Activities commenced with the teaching of Saami in Uppsala in 1894. Language and culture became integrated in Wiklund s research right from the beginning. In the academic world, and in society at large, Saami issues were referred to him as the obvious expert in the field. This situation was to continue for around three decades and would even influence the measures taken by society on Saami issues. Wiklund s senior lectureship, which he gained after writing his doctoral dissertation <em>Entwurf einer urlappischen Lautlehre</em> (1896), was in practice instrumental in the establishment of the academic subject of Finno-Ugric languages in Sweden. In 1909 he had obtained a full professorship in a subject which was defined as having a special emphasis on Lappish and Finnish . Wiklund s career as a linguist began in the Lule lappmark region, where he carried out his first field studies. They became pivotal to the continuation of linguistic work that has continued to the present day. Even before the dissertation, Wiklund published a description of Lule Saami phonology and a Lule Saami dictionary <em>Lule-lappisches Wörterbuch</em> (1890). Wiklund s scholarly production is rich and ranges from questions on historical phonology and consonant gradation to Nordic loanwords and place names. Wiklund s posthumous work: Lapparna (1947), is an attempt to further expand the study of Saami history using the insights of a linguist. He was also an early enthusiast for a broader knowledge of Saami, which in his case meant the > Lule Saami of Lule Lappmark. The book which was intended to make this development possible was a textbook of Saami: <em>Lärobok i lapska språket</em> (1901, 1915). The heritage of this period has been rediscovered by the Saamis themselves in later decades.</p>
<p align="justify">Saami language research is being intensified in Sweden. Wiklund had numerous students, among others Sigrid Drake, Nils Moosberg and Axel Calleberg. However, the one who outshone them all was Björn Collinder (1894-1983). Collinder first specialized in Nordic languages, in which he a licentiate degree in 1920. Like Wiklund, Collinder acquired knowledge of language and culture through numerous expeditions in the north. Through his work, we now have information about dialects, place names and Saami culture from all of the Swedish Lappmark regions. He used his own research records in his scientific publications. The rest of his works are archived in the archived in the state-run public archives i Sweden ([[Archiv|archives]]). In those days, expeditions were arduous and time-consuming, often taking several months. Through field work records and reports of the work that was done in those days, we can see how Collinder even participated in fishing and reindeer herding in order to be able to glean new Saami terms and expressions. His expeditions to Gällivare provided material for a study on the phonology of the dialect of the Forest Saami of Gällivare: <em>Lautlehre des waldlappischen Dialektes von Gällivare</em> (1938). In 1929 he wrote a doctoral dissertation on Finno-Ugric consonantal gradation. On his list of qualifications for the professorship he attained in 1933, he could add his work on Germanic loanwords in Finnish (1932) and Indo-Uralic language elements in Finno-Ugric languages (1934). Among the most influential works in Finno-Ugric linguistics is: <em>A Handbook of the Uralic Languages</em> in three volumes (1955-1960). In the field of Saami research there is: <em>The Lappish Dialect of Jukkasjärvi</em> (1949), which is an important work. Collinder s interests also included the spreading of knowledge about Saami Languages and Saami culture. His book on the Saami Lapparna , (1953) is a description meant for popular reading. Collinder also felt bound, in certain circumstances, to criticise Swedish ethnologists for their lack of interest in learning Saami. A standard work on place names is Collinder's dictionary of Swedish Lappish place names: <em>Ordbok till Sveriges lapska ortnamn</em> (1964). Everything that he wrote in Swedish is formulated in an original manner. His translation of the Saami national anthem ([[National symbols|national symbols]]) is excellent. Collinder's successor was Bo Wickman (b. 1917), who took over Collinder s professorship in 1962. A trip to Estonia after his high school days inspired him to study Finno-Ugric languages. After a stay in Hungary and studies in Uppsala in Slavic languages, Turkish and Nordic languages, Wickman defended his dissertation on the subject of the object case in Uralic languages (published in 1955). Wickman discussed syntax, phonology, language kinship and etymologies in Finno-Ugric languages. He touches upon Saami topics in several of his essays. Examples of these are: <em>Die lappischen Nomina auf Nom. Sing -es</em> (1958) and <em>A Lappish Tale from Arjeplog</em> (1964). Others are found in publications dedicated to his 80th birthday called chosen texts - <em>Valda skrifter</em> (1997). Wickman's place name records, together with Wiklund's and Collinder's work, form the source material which is the basis for the name revisioning of Saami [[Place names on Lapp|place names ]] in Sweden now underway. Despite threats of diminished funding for the subject of Finno-Ugric languages, Wickman managed to arrange for separate and continuous courses in Finnish, Estonian, Saami and Hungarian in Uppsala. After his retirement, Bo Wickman was succeeded by Lars-Gunnar Larsson, who is now the professor for the subject. The Saami subjects in his research pertain to language history, dialectology, dialect words and issues pertaining to the history and language of the so-called parish Lapps. <em>Glidvokalen i lulesamiskan</em> , or The glide vowels (shevah-vowels) in [[Lule Saami language|Lule Saami ]] (1990) is an article about a recognized phenomenon in Saami in the Lule lappmark region.</p>
<p align="justify">Then we come to a Saami involved in Saami language research. The academically educated Saami, Israel Ruong (1903-86), came from the Saami population in Arjeplog. Ruong s contributions are two-fold. On the one hand, his work involved studies of certain phenomena in older Saami culture and, on the other, he carried out research on the Saami language in combination with work towards inspiring Saamis to participate in activities in the language field. Furthermore, Ruong was active in Saami politics for a long time which ended up taking up more and more of his time. He was even the director for the Saami schools in Sweden from 1947 to 1967. He was the editor for the newspaper Samefolket (The Saami People) and chairman for the Confederation of Swedish Saami from 1959 to 1967. Ruong s road to university was long and arduous. His childhood home was in the settlement of Harrok in the Arjeplog fells, 60 kilometres from Arjeplog. His father, mother and two siblings died, only days apart, as a result of the Spanish Flu in 1920. Ruong was 17 years old at the time. After completing his elementary school teacher s examination in 1927 and after a few years of teaching he arrived in Uppsala where he chose to study cultural geography and Finno-Ugric languages. Under the guidance of Björn Collinder in 1943, he defended a thesis entitled Lappische Verbalableitung dargestellt auf Grundlage des Pitelappischen . The subject dealt with the derivatives of verbs in his own Saami mother tongue. Ruong was then senior lecturer in Lappish and Lappish ethnology from 1949 to 1969. He was made professor in 1969. During field work in the northern lappmark regions he recorded information on language and livelihoods. Material from these studies are included in the articles <em>Fjällapparna i Jukkasjärvi socken</em> (Fell Lapps in the parish of Jukkasjärvi - 1937), <em>Studier i lapsk kultur i Pite lappmark</em> (Studies of Lappish culture in Pite lappmark - 1944) and <em>Om renmjölkningen på sydlapskt område</em> (About reindeer milking in southern Lappish regions - 1954). The book <em>Samerna i historien och nutiden</em> Saamis in history and the present day has been published in numerous editions as of 1969. As early as the mid-1900 s, Ruong took the initiative for producing teaching material in the subject of Saami in [[Saami school]]. After deliberations between Israel Ruong and Knut Bergsland in Oslo, a new Saami orthography had been formulated. The work led to a decision on a common set of spelling rules. The educational authorities in Norway and Sweden established the rules and, as of around 1950, these rules were put into use. Among the books that were published with the new spelling were: <em>Niilas ja su sii da</em> (1965), <em>Dovdagat ja bargot</em> (1967) and <em>Min sámegiella</em> (1970) - a book of grammar including exercises. Even Johan [[Turi, Johan (engl. ver.)|Turi's ]] book called <em>Muitalus sámiid birra</em> was published with the modern spelling (1965). Israel Ruong was one of the initiators of the [[Saamelaisinstituutti|Nordic Saami Institute]] and was active in bringing about the Saami institution in Umeå, which was founded in 1975. Up to the mid-1900 s, Saami had been researched by linguists lacking Saami backgrounds. Ruong spearheaded a new period with an increased number of Saamis working in the field. This situation is reflected both in Uppsala and Umeå, which is mentioned later.</p>
<p align="justify">Nils Erik Hansegård (1918-2002) was the academic who was responsible for the establishing of the subject of Saami in Umeå from the time of the founding of the institution in 1975. As assistant teacher at the high school in Kiruna from 1953 to 1967, Hansegård was interested in the linguistic aptitudes of bi- or multilingual students. In writings about multilingualism in the north, he called for an improved understanding of the problems that occur if a school does not take into account the pupils language circumstances. Through his work <em>Tvåspråkighet eller halvspråkighet</em> Bilingualism and semilingualism (1968) he wished to kindle an awareness of this situation. A heated debate about bilingualism ensued which, among other things, contributed to the later introduction of home language teaching for children with deviating mother tongues in Sweden. His thoughts were also disseminated to international multilingual researchers. In 1967, he defended his dissertation on the subject of <em>Recent Finnish Loanwords in Jukkasjärvi Lappish</em> . This is a historical retrospective of the Saami population in the Torne lappmark region and their linguistic and cultural conditions. The main content of the dissertation is the influence of Finnish on the Torne Saami vocabulary. Both the dissertation and later works, such as <em>Språken i det norrbottensfinska området</em> (Languages in the Norrbotten Finnish region - 1988) and <em>Den norrbottensfinska språkfrågan</em> (The Norrbotten Finnish language question - 1990), are broad overviews of the complex language situation in northern Sweden. A large work on older Saami life and Saami livelihoods in the Torne lappmark region is: <em>The Transition of the Jukkasjärvi Lapps from Nomadism to Settled Life and Farming</em> (1978). One contribution about Saami written language by the retired Hansegård is <em>Dialekt eller språk?</em> (Dialect or Language? 2000). Nils Erik Hansegård was professor of Saami from 1975 to 1979 and was succeeded in 1983 by Olavi Korhonen. Korhonen defended a thesis under the title: <em>Samisk-finska båttermer och ortnamnselement och deras slaviska bakgrund</em> (Finno-Saami boat terminology, place name elements and their Slavic backgrounds -1982). His research has tackled issues of how Saami vocabularies can reflect historical conditions. Such topics as: loanwords and their meanings, the geographical distribution of words and the connection of various terms to traditional livelihoods have thus been studied. Other topics are place name studies and dictionary work, among others a Lule Saami dictionary <em>Bákkogir je</em> (1979). Among the Saamis who defended theses at Saami institutions in Umeå and Uppsala after Israel Ruong are: Elina Helander (dissertation about trilingualism), Mikael Svonni (dissertation about the saami language of saami school children), Åsa Nordin (about reindeer husbandry system in the parish of Gällivare), Susanna Angéus Kuojok (dissertation subject of nominative endings with -ahka ).</p>
<p align="justify">The general tendency in Saami language research in the Nordic region has been that researchers have carried out field work in their own countries of origin. This can, in particular, be said to hold true of Wiklund, Collinder, Wickman and Hansegård. The Hungarian Ignác Halász gathered his records both in the Norwegian and Swedish lappmark regions, however, his active work was short-lived. From the Finnish side one can also mention Eliel Lagercrantz s extensive records from the beginning of the 1900 s in all of the lappmark regions outside Russia. They are published in the dictionary <em>Lappischer Wortschatz</em> (1939) and the collection of texts called <em>Lappische Volksdichtung</em> (1957-1966). He also studied language structure in the central lappmark regions in Sweden in his work <em>Sprachlehre des Westlappischen nach der Mundart von Arjeplog</em> (1926). This was a dialect which was also recently studied by the Finnish researcher JuhaniLehtiranta in <em>Arjeploginsaamen äänneja taivutusopin pääpiirteet</em> (The main phonological and inflectional characteristics of Arjeplog Saami - 1992). Due to the fact that the variations of Saami extend over the Kölen range of mountains between Sweden and Norway, research of South Saami has even crossed the national border. The eminent expert of this Saami was the Norwegian Knut Bergsland (1914-1998). In a series of works on language, culture and place names, he moves freely between the different countries. His articles <em>The Lapp Dialects South of Lapland</em> (1961), <em>Some well-known Mountain Names and Border Questions in Southern Lapland</em> (1964), <em>Lapp Dialectal Groups and Problems of History</em> (1967) and <em>The Grouping of the Lapp Dialects as a Problem of Historical Linguistics</em> (1968) are academic in nature. In addition, there are articles about the oldest southern Saami written language (used on the Swedish side of the border), articles about place names and historical interpretations. Due to the transborder character of the South Saami written language, Bergsland s influence has been important even on the Swedish side. His works for language teaching are (with Gustav Hasselbrink) <em>Sámien lukkame-gärjá</em> (1957), (with Ella Holm Bull) <em>Lohkede saemien</em> (1968, 1974 ) and <em>Sydsamiskgrammatikk</em> (South Saami grammer - 1982). A later addition to handbooks about the region is one by Knut Bergsland & Lajla Mattsson Magga <em>Åarjelsaemien-daaroen baakoegärja - Sydsamisk-norsk ordbok</em> (The South Saami- Norwegian dictionary -1993). One should be grateful that the German language linguist Wolfgang Schlachter, during the wartime, did not acquire a residential permit for studies in Saami in Bårjås (Porjus) north of Jokkmokk. Instead, Schlachter fortunately went to Malå in 1940 where his records of Ume Saami have become unique. Texts with word lists from his records are published in the work <em>Wörterbuch des Waldlappendialekts von Malå und Texte zur Ethnographie</em> (1958). A continued analysis of the material is contained in his work <em>Stufenwechselstörungen im Malålappischen</em> (1991). Lule Saami, which like South Saami extends over the border between Sweden and Norway, has not been studied in the same manner in neighbouring countries. To the contrary, the Lule Saami region in Norway, mainly Tysfjord, is not dealt with in the dictionary by Harald Grundström, which will be referred to later. The Finnish researcher, Raija Bartens, has, on the other hand, used syntactical examples from Lule Saami in <em>Inarinlapin, merilapin ja luulajanlapin kaasussyntaksi</em> (The case syntax of Inari-, Sea and Lule Lapland - 1972). No substantial studies been carried out in the Torne Saami region in northern Sweden by linguists from neighbouring countries either.</p>
<p align="justify">A particular group of linguists is made up by the lappmark priests, who through their contacts with the Saami concentrated on learning Saami and thereby even published dictionaries, and in some cases even written theses, on the subject. One such priest was Harald Grundström (1885-1960), who was active in Jokkmokk as of 1915. He was able to get to know the Saami, their culture and language for over 30 years. He formulated Lule Saami texts with word lists (Pirak, Anta) and compiled his own and K.B. Wiklund s and Björn Collinder s records into an extensive dictionary, <em>Lulelapsk ordbok</em> (The Lule Lappish Dictionary -1946-1952), in which six different sub-dialects are recorded. The Saami words in this work have Swedish and German translations. Grundström is one of the people who has recorded an extensive number of Saami place names and Saami folk traditions. Some of these are published in the yearbook Norrbotten 1923-1933 . The clear focus on Lule Saami in K.B. Wiklund s day was continued by Grundström and this has had a marked influence on the development of the Lule Saami written language today.Grundström became an honorary doctor of philosophy at Uppsala University in 1944. Another priest was Gustav Hasselbrink (1900-1982) who, during his service in Vilhelmina in the 1940 s, began to study South Saami and then in 1944 he defended his thesis on the subject of <em>Vilhelminalapskans ljudlära med särskild hänsyn till första stavelsens vokaler</em> (The phonology of Vilhelmina Lappish with an emphasis on the vowels of the first syllable) . The phonology of South Saami is further analysed by Hasselbrink in <em>Alternative Analyses of the Phonemic System in Central South-Lappish</em> (1965). The South Saami reading book with grammar and a word list, which he published with Knut Bergsland (see above 1957), was intended to revitalise [[South Saami language]]. This development came about much later. After his retirement he worked until 1965 with South Saami word records in Uppsala and wrote the large dictionary <em>Südlappisches Wörterbuch / Oårjelsaamien baaguogärjaa</em> (1981-1985). Another linguist who, like Björn Collinder, began with academic studies in Nordic languages is Tryggve Sköld (born 1922). Through the presence of Nordic loanwords in Saami he was led into studies of this language. One group of loanwords are seen to be old Nordic in nature, that is to say, loaned prior to 700 AD. K.B. Wiklund was of the opinion that the number of loans was around 600, whereas Björn Collinder wanted to limit them to around 200. In his doctoral thesis <em>Die Kriterien der urnordischen Lehnwörter im Lappischen</em> (1961), Sköld is critical of many of these and estimates the number to be less than 200. Loanword issues are also dealt with in the work <em>Einige germanische Lehnwörter in Lappischen und Finnischen</em> (Uppsala 1960). Sköld belonged to the circle around Björn Collinder, in Uppsala, but came to Umeå early on and was professor of Finnish at Umeå University between 1973 and1987. As an octogenarian heis active in compiling his excerpts of Saami etymology from linguistic literature. Håkan Rydving (born 1953) is a young and productive religious historian who refers to Saami topics and thereby uses his knowledge of Saami. He defended a thesis on the topic <em>The End of Drum-Time</em> (1995), which deals with the conversion to Christianity of the Lule Saami. Other subjects he has dealt with are, for instance, Saami naming, Saami dialects and written language forms as well as Saami place names.</p>
<p align="justify"> [[Saami Studies: Finland|Saami studies: Finland]], [[Saami Studies: Norway|Saami studies: Norway]], [[Research History of the eastern Saamiland|Saami studies: Russia]] </p><BR><BR>s: Russia]] </p><BR><BR> +
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